India: A Timeline to Independence (c. 7000 BCE – 1947 CE)

India’s history stretches back thousands of years, weaving together stories of ancient civilizations, empires, cultures, and the long struggle for independence. This timeline traces the journey from prehistoric settlements to the birth of a sovereign nation in 1947.

Prehistory & Early Cultures (c. 7000–2600 BCE)

The earliest evidence of settled life in the Indian subcontinent comes from Mehrgarh (in present-day Pakistan), where Neolithic communities cultivated wheat and barley, domesticated animals, and crafted pottery. Over time, these agrarian societies expanded, laying the foundations for urban civilization.

Indus Valley / Harappan Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE)

The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the world’s first great urban cultures, with cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro featuring advanced drainage systems, planned streets, and standardized weights. The economy thrived on agriculture, craft production, and long-distance trade with Mesopotamia. Decline set in around 1900 BCE, likely due to climate change, shifting rivers, and resource depletion, leading to a more rural pattern of life.

Vedic Age (c. 1500–600 BCE)

Following the migration of Indo-Aryan peoples, the Vedic period saw the composition of the Rig Veda, the oldest Hindu scripture. Early Vedic society was pastoral, organized into clans, and practiced elaborate rituals. By the later Vedic phase, iron tools facilitated expansion into the fertile Ganga plains, leading to settled agriculture, the rise of kingdoms, and the development of social hierarchies based on varna (class).

Mahajanapadas & Shramana Movements (c. 600–321 BCE)

Sixteen major states, or Mahajanapadas, emerged, with Magadha becoming the most powerful. Urbanization accelerated, coinage appeared, and trade flourished. This era also saw the rise of new philosophical traditions — Buddhism and Jainism — which challenged orthodox Vedic practices and emphasized ethical living, non-violence, and spiritual liberation.

Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE)

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with guidance from his advisor Chanakya, the Mauryan Empire became the first to unify most of the Indian subcontinent. Under Ashoka the Great, the empire reached its zenith. After the bloody Kalinga War, Ashoka embraced Buddhism, promoting peace, moral governance, and welfare through edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars across the land.

Post-Mauryan & Early Classical Period (c. 185 BCE–300 CE)

After the Mauryas, regional powers like the Shungas, Indo-Greeks, Kushans, and Satavahanas ruled parts of India. The Kushans connected India to the Silk Road, fostering artistic styles such as Gandhara art. Buddhism spread further into Central and East Asia, while trade networks brought prosperity and cultural exchange.

Gupta Era & Classical Flowering (c. 320–550 CE)

The Gupta Empire is often called India’s Golden Age. Mathematics (including the concept of zero), astronomy, literature, and art flourished. Writers like Kalidasa produced enduring works, while Hindu temple architecture reached new heights. Science and learning thrived in universities such as Nalanda.

Early Medieval Regional Powers (c. 550–1200 CE)

After the Gupta decline, regional kingdoms dominated, including the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Cholas. The Cholas built vast temple complexes and expanded maritime trade to Southeast Asia, while the Pallavas developed distinctive Dravidian architectural styles.

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

Established by Turkic rulers, the Delhi Sultanate introduced Persian administrative practices and Indo-Islamic culture. While marked by political instability, it fostered architectural innovations, literature, and new irrigation systems. This era saw both conflict and cultural fusion between Hindu and Muslim traditions.

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)

In southern India, the Vijayanagara Empire became a powerful Hindu kingdom, renowned for its capital Hampi’s temples, markets, and art. It was a hub of trade, connecting inland goods with oceanic routes to the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Mughal Empire (1526–c. 1857)

Founded by Babur, the Mughals ruled much of India for over three centuries. Akbar the Great expanded the empire and promoted religious tolerance. Shah Jahan’s reign saw the construction of the Taj Mahal, while Aurangzeb’s later rule brought stricter orthodoxy. Over time, regional powers challenged Mughal authority, weakening the empire.

Regional States & Resistance (18th Century)

As Mughal power declined, the Maratha Confederacy, Sikh misls, Mysore under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, and others rose to prominence. These states often clashed with European trading companies, resisting foreign dominance.

European Maritime Entry & Competition (1498–1757)

Portuguese arrival in Calicut in 1498 opened the door for European colonization. The Dutch, French, and British competed for trade dominance. Over time, the British East India Company emerged as the most powerful foreign force.

Company Rule & Expansion (1757–1857)

After the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), the East India Company gained control of Bengal, expanding through warfare and alliances. Harsh revenue systems, deindustrialization, and exploitation impoverished many regions, sparking resentment.

Socio-Religious Reform & Early National Consciousness (19th Century)

Movements like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Aligarh Movement sought to reform society, promote education, and resist harmful traditions. Newspapers, literature, and new educational institutions nurtured political awareness.

Revolt of 1857 & The End of Company Rule

The 1857 uprising, triggered by military grievances and broader resentment, spread across north India. Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai and Bahadur Shah Zafar became symbols of resistance. Though suppressed, the revolt ended Company rule, and India came directly under the British Crown.

The British Raj (1858–1947)

Under direct British rule, railways, telegraphs, and canals expanded, but economic exploitation continued. Famines, land displacement, and racial discrimination fueled growing opposition to colonial rule.

Birth of Organized Nationalism (1885–1905)

The Indian National Congress (INC) formed in 1885 to press for political reforms. Early leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji sought constitutional changes within the British framework, laying the groundwork for mass politics.

Swadeshi & Assertive Nationalism (1905–1911)

The Partition of Bengal in 1905 sparked boycotts of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made products. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak urged self-rule, and cultural revival accompanied political activism.

First World War, Home Rule, and Mass Politics (1914–1919)

Indian soldiers fought for Britain in World War I, but postwar hopes for reform were dashed. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919 shocked the nation, while the Rowlatt Act curtailed freedoms, intensifying nationalist sentiment.

Gandhian Mass Movements (1919–1934)

Gandhi’s leadership brought non-violent resistance to the forefront. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) encouraged boycotts and self-reliance. The Salt March of 1930 challenged British monopoly laws, sparking the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Ideological Currents & Parallel Streams

Revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh sought to overthrow colonial rule through direct action. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar campaigned for social justice and the rights of marginalized communities. Leftist movements mobilized peasants and workers, adding to the diversity of the struggle.

Government of India Act 1935 & Provincial Autonomy (1937–39)

This act granted limited self-rule in provinces, allowing Congress ministries to govern in some regions. It was a step toward greater autonomy but still under British oversight.

Second World War & The Crisis of Empire (1939–45)

Britain’s unilateral decision to involve India in WWII led to resignations by Congress leaders. Subhas Chandra Bose formed the Indian National Army, seeking liberation with Axis support. Wartime strains weakened British control.

Cripps Mission, Quit India, and Mass Repression (1942–44)

The Cripps Mission’s proposals for postwar self-government fell short of Indian expectations. The Quit India Movement of 1942, with Gandhi’s call of “Do or Die,” ignited mass protests, leading to severe repression and arrests of leaders.

Postwar Negotiations & Partition (1945–47)

After WWII, Britain’s weakened state and rising communal tensions made independence inevitable. The Mountbatten Plan of 1947 proposed partition into India and Pakistan, leading to massive migrations and communal violence.

Independence & After (1947–1950)

India gained independence on 15 August 1947, with Jawaharlal Nehru as its first Prime Minister. The partition’s human cost was immense. Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, urging peace until his last breath. On 26 January 1950, India became a republic with a new Constitution, affirming its democratic values.